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Физиология лактации, фертильность и контрацепция после родов
Физиология лактации, фертильность и контрацепция после родов
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Аннотация
В статье отражены вопросы физиологии лактации, особенности морфологии и функции молочных желез во время беременности и лактации, роль пролактина, окситоцина и тиреотропного гормона в секреции и выделении грудного молока. Описаны условия действия послеродовой лактационной аменореи как метода регуляции фертильности у женщин. Представлены данные о возможностях применения прогестагенных средств контрацепции после родов, их безопасности для матери и плода.
Ключевые слова: послеродовый период, лактация, фертильность, лактационная аменорея, прогестагенные контрацептивы.
Key words: рospartum, lactation, fertility, lactational amenorrhea, progestogenic contraception.
Ключевые слова: послеродовый период, лактация, фертильность, лактационная аменорея, прогестагенные контрацептивы.
________________________________________________
Key words: рospartum, lactation, fertility, lactational amenorrhea, progestogenic contraception.
Полный текст
Список литературы
1. Tyson JE, Friesen HG. Factors influencing the secretion of human prolactin and growth hormone in menstrual and gestational women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1973; 116 (3): 377–87.
2. Barberia JM, Abu-Fadil S, Kletzky OA, Nakamura RM, Mishell DR. Serum prolactin patterns in early human gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1975; 121 (8): 1107–10.
3. Ehara Y, Siler TM, Yen SS. Effects of large doses of estrogen on prolactin and growth hormone release. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976; 125 (4): 455–8.
4. Haslam SZ, Shyamala G. Progesterone receptors in normal mammary gland: receptor modulations in relation to differentiation. J Cell Biol 1980; 86 (3): 730–7.
5. Murphy LJ, Murphy LC, Stead B et al. Modulation of lactogenic receptors by progestins in cultured human breast cancer cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 62 (2): 280–7.
6. Simon WE, Pahnke VG, Hölzel F. In vitro modulation of prolactin binding to human mammary carcinoma cells by steroid hormones and prolactin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 60 (6): 1243–9.
7. Lee CS, Oka T. Progesterone regulation of a pregnancy-specific transcription repressor to beta-casein gene promoter in mouse mammary gland. Endocrinology 1992; 131 (5): 2257–62.
8. Battin DA, Marrs RP, Fleiss PM, Mishell DR Jr. Effect of suckling on serum prolactin, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and estradiol during prolonged lactation. Obstet Gynecol 1985; 65 (6): 785–8.
9. Stern JM, Konner M, Herman TN, Reichlin S. Nursing behaviour, prolactin and postpartum amenorrhoea during prolonged lactation in American and Kung mothers. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf.) 1986; 25 (3): 247–58.
10. Tay CC, Glasier AF, McNeilly AS. Twenty-four hour patterns of prolactin secretion during lactation and the relationship to suckling and the resumption of fertility in breast-feeding women. Hum Reprod 1996; 11 (5): 950–5.
11. Dawood MY, Khan-Dawood FS, Wahi RS, Fuchs F. Oxytocin release and plasma anterior pituitary and gonadal hormones in women during lactation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 52 (4) :678–83.
12. McNeilly AS, Robinson IC, Houston MJ, Howie PW. Release of oxytocin and prolactin in response to suckling. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1983; 286 (6361): 257–9.
13. Nishimori K, Young LJ, Guo Q et al. Oxytocin is required for nursing but is not essential for parturition or reproductive behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93 (21): 11699–704.
14. McClellan HL, Miller SJ, Hartmann PE. Evolution of lactation: nutrition v. protection with special reference to five mammalian species. Nutr Res Rev 2008; 21 (2): 97–116.
15. Betzold CM, Galactagogues J. Midwifery Womens Health 2004; 49 (2): 151–4.
16. Kremer JA, Rolland R, van der Heijden PF et al. Return of gonadotropic function in postpartum women during bromocriptine treatment. Fertil Steril 1989; 51 (4): 622–7.
17. Haartsen JE, Heineman MJ, Elings M et al. Resumption of pituitary and ovarian activity post-partum: endocrine and ultrasonic observations in bromocriptine-treated women. Hum Reprod 1992; 7 (6): 746–50.
18. Kumar R, Cohen WR, Epstein FH.Vitamin D and calcium hormones in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1980; 302 (20): 1143–5.
19. Kovacs CS, Kronenberg HM. Maternal-fetal calcium and bone metabolism during pregnancy, puerperium, and lactation. Endocr Rev 1997; 18 (6): 832–72.
20. Sowers M, Corton G, Shapiro B et al. Changes in bone density with lactation. JAMA 1993; 269 (24): 3130–5.
21. Kalkwarf HJ, Specker BL. Bone mineral loss during lactation and recovery after weaning. Obstet Gynecol 1995; 86 (1): 26–32.
22. Kovacs CS. Calcium and bone metabolism in pregnancy and lactation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86 (6): 2344–8.
23. Kalkwarf HJ, Specker BL, Bianchi DC et al. The effect of calcium supplementation on bone density during lactation and after weaning. N Engl J Med 1997; 337 (8): 523–8.
24. Kovacs CS. Vitamin D in pregnancy and lactation: maternal, fetal, and neonatal outcomes from human and animal studies. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 88 (2): 520S–528S.
25. Ofluoglu O, Ofluoglu D. A case report: pregnancy-induced severe osteoporosis with eight vertebral fractures. Rheumatol Int 2008; 29 (2): 197–201. Epub 2008 Jul 17.
26. Stumpf UC, Kurth AA, Windolf J, Fassbender WJ. Pregnancy-associated osteoporosis: an underestimated and underdiagnosed severe disease. A review of two cases in short- and long-term follow-up. Adv Med Sci 2007; 52: 94–7.
27. Hellmeyer L, Kühnert M, Ziller V et al. The use of i.v. bisphosphonate in pregnancy-associated osteoporosis-case study. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2007; 115 (2): 139–42.
28. Pettitt DJ, Forman MR, Hanson RL et al. Breastfeeding and incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Pima Indians. Lancet 1997; 350 (9072): 166–8.
29. Díaz S, Aravena R, Cárdenas H et al. Contraceptive efficacy of lactational amenorrhea in urban Chilean women. Contraception 1991; 43 (4): 335–52.
30. Wasalathanthri S, Tennekoon KH. Lactational amenorrhea/anovulation and some of their determinants: a comparison of well-nourished and undernourished women. Fertil Steril 2001; 76 (2): 317–25.
31. Speroff L, Fritz MA, 2005.
32. Campbell OM, Gray RH. Characteristics and determinants of postpartum ovarian function in women in the United States. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169 (1): 55–60.
33. Visness CM, Kennedy KI, Gross BA et al. Fertility of fully breast-feeding women in the early postpartum period. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 89 (2): 164–7.
34. Korver T et al. 1998, 2005.
35. Bjarnadottir RI et al. 2001.
36. King J. 2007.
37. Reinprayoon D et al. 2000.
2. Barberia JM, Abu-Fadil S, Kletzky OA, Nakamura RM, Mishell DR. Serum prolactin patterns in early human gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1975; 121 (8): 1107–10.
3. Ehara Y, Siler TM, Yen SS. Effects of large doses of estrogen on prolactin and growth hormone release. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976; 125 (4): 455–8.
4. Haslam SZ, Shyamala G. Progesterone receptors in normal mammary gland: receptor modulations in relation to differentiation. J Cell Biol 1980; 86 (3): 730–7.
5. Murphy LJ, Murphy LC, Stead B et al. Modulation of lactogenic receptors by progestins in cultured human breast cancer cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 62 (2): 280–7.
6. Simon WE, Pahnke VG, Hölzel F. In vitro modulation of prolactin binding to human mammary carcinoma cells by steroid hormones and prolactin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 60 (6): 1243–9.
7. Lee CS, Oka T. Progesterone regulation of a pregnancy-specific transcription repressor to beta-casein gene promoter in mouse mammary gland. Endocrinology 1992; 131 (5): 2257–62.
8. Battin DA, Marrs RP, Fleiss PM, Mishell DR Jr. Effect of suckling on serum prolactin, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and estradiol during prolonged lactation. Obstet Gynecol 1985; 65 (6): 785–8.
9. Stern JM, Konner M, Herman TN, Reichlin S. Nursing behaviour, prolactin and postpartum amenorrhoea during prolonged lactation in American and Kung mothers. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf.) 1986; 25 (3): 247–58.
10. Tay CC, Glasier AF, McNeilly AS. Twenty-four hour patterns of prolactin secretion during lactation and the relationship to suckling and the resumption of fertility in breast-feeding women. Hum Reprod 1996; 11 (5): 950–5.
11. Dawood MY, Khan-Dawood FS, Wahi RS, Fuchs F. Oxytocin release and plasma anterior pituitary and gonadal hormones in women during lactation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 52 (4) :678–83.
12. McNeilly AS, Robinson IC, Houston MJ, Howie PW. Release of oxytocin and prolactin in response to suckling. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1983; 286 (6361): 257–9.
13. Nishimori K, Young LJ, Guo Q et al. Oxytocin is required for nursing but is not essential for parturition or reproductive behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93 (21): 11699–704.
14. McClellan HL, Miller SJ, Hartmann PE. Evolution of lactation: nutrition v. protection with special reference to five mammalian species. Nutr Res Rev 2008; 21 (2): 97–116.
15. Betzold CM, Galactagogues J. Midwifery Womens Health 2004; 49 (2): 151–4.
16. Kremer JA, Rolland R, van der Heijden PF et al. Return of gonadotropic function in postpartum women during bromocriptine treatment. Fertil Steril 1989; 51 (4): 622–7.
17. Haartsen JE, Heineman MJ, Elings M et al. Resumption of pituitary and ovarian activity post-partum: endocrine and ultrasonic observations in bromocriptine-treated women. Hum Reprod 1992; 7 (6): 746–50.
18. Kumar R, Cohen WR, Epstein FH.Vitamin D and calcium hormones in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1980; 302 (20): 1143–5.
19. Kovacs CS, Kronenberg HM. Maternal-fetal calcium and bone metabolism during pregnancy, puerperium, and lactation. Endocr Rev 1997; 18 (6): 832–72.
20. Sowers M, Corton G, Shapiro B et al. Changes in bone density with lactation. JAMA 1993; 269 (24): 3130–5.
21. Kalkwarf HJ, Specker BL. Bone mineral loss during lactation and recovery after weaning. Obstet Gynecol 1995; 86 (1): 26–32.
22. Kovacs CS. Calcium and bone metabolism in pregnancy and lactation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86 (6): 2344–8.
23. Kalkwarf HJ, Specker BL, Bianchi DC et al. The effect of calcium supplementation on bone density during lactation and after weaning. N Engl J Med 1997; 337 (8): 523–8.
24. Kovacs CS. Vitamin D in pregnancy and lactation: maternal, fetal, and neonatal outcomes from human and animal studies. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 88 (2): 520S–528S.
25. Ofluoglu O, Ofluoglu D. A case report: pregnancy-induced severe osteoporosis with eight vertebral fractures. Rheumatol Int 2008; 29 (2): 197–201. Epub 2008 Jul 17.
26. Stumpf UC, Kurth AA, Windolf J, Fassbender WJ. Pregnancy-associated osteoporosis: an underestimated and underdiagnosed severe disease. A review of two cases in short- and long-term follow-up. Adv Med Sci 2007; 52: 94–7.
27. Hellmeyer L, Kühnert M, Ziller V et al. The use of i.v. bisphosphonate in pregnancy-associated osteoporosis-case study. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2007; 115 (2): 139–42.
28. Pettitt DJ, Forman MR, Hanson RL et al. Breastfeeding and incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Pima Indians. Lancet 1997; 350 (9072): 166–8.
29. Díaz S, Aravena R, Cárdenas H et al. Contraceptive efficacy of lactational amenorrhea in urban Chilean women. Contraception 1991; 43 (4): 335–52.
30. Wasalathanthri S, Tennekoon KH. Lactational amenorrhea/anovulation and some of their determinants: a comparison of well-nourished and undernourished women. Fertil Steril 2001; 76 (2): 317–25.
31. Speroff L, Fritz MA, 2005.
32. Campbell OM, Gray RH. Characteristics and determinants of postpartum ovarian function in women in the United States. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169 (1): 55–60.
33. Visness CM, Kennedy KI, Gross BA et al. Fertility of fully breast-feeding women in the early postpartum period. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 89 (2): 164–7.
34. Korver T et al. 1998, 2005.
35. Bjarnadottir RI et al. 2001.
36. King J. 2007.
37. Reinprayoon D et al. 2000.
2. Barberia JM, Abu-Fadil S, Kletzky OA, Nakamura RM, Mishell DR. Serum prolactin patterns in early human gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1975; 121 (8): 1107–10.
3. Ehara Y, Siler TM, Yen SS. Effects of large doses of estrogen on prolactin and growth hormone release. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976; 125 (4): 455–8.
4. Haslam SZ, Shyamala G. Progesterone receptors in normal mammary gland: receptor modulations in relation to differentiation. J Cell Biol 1980; 86 (3): 730–7.
5. Murphy LJ, Murphy LC, Stead B et al. Modulation of lactogenic receptors by progestins in cultured human breast cancer cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 62 (2): 280–7.
6. Simon WE, Pahnke VG, Hölzel F. In vitro modulation of prolactin binding to human mammary carcinoma cells by steroid hormones and prolactin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 60 (6): 1243–9.
7. Lee CS, Oka T. Progesterone regulation of a pregnancy-specific transcription repressor to beta-casein gene promoter in mouse mammary gland. Endocrinology 1992; 131 (5): 2257–62.
8. Battin DA, Marrs RP, Fleiss PM, Mishell DR Jr. Effect of suckling on serum prolactin, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and estradiol during prolonged lactation. Obstet Gynecol 1985; 65 (6): 785–8.
9. Stern JM, Konner M, Herman TN, Reichlin S. Nursing behaviour, prolactin and postpartum amenorrhoea during prolonged lactation in American and Kung mothers. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf.) 1986; 25 (3): 247–58.
10. Tay CC, Glasier AF, McNeilly AS. Twenty-four hour patterns of prolactin secretion during lactation and the relationship to suckling and the resumption of fertility in breast-feeding women. Hum Reprod 1996; 11 (5): 950–5.
11. Dawood MY, Khan-Dawood FS, Wahi RS, Fuchs F. Oxytocin release and plasma anterior pituitary and gonadal hormones in women during lactation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 52 (4) :678–83.
12. McNeilly AS, Robinson IC, Houston MJ, Howie PW. Release of oxytocin and prolactin in response to suckling. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1983; 286 (6361): 257–9.
13. Nishimori K, Young LJ, Guo Q et al. Oxytocin is required for nursing but is not essential for parturition or reproductive behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93 (21): 11699–704.
14. McClellan HL, Miller SJ, Hartmann PE. Evolution of lactation: nutrition v. protection with special reference to five mammalian species. Nutr Res Rev 2008; 21 (2): 97–116.
15. Betzold CM, Galactagogues J. Midwifery Womens Health 2004; 49 (2): 151–4.
16. Kremer JA, Rolland R, van der Heijden PF et al. Return of gonadotropic function in postpartum women during bromocriptine treatment. Fertil Steril 1989; 51 (4): 622–7.
17. Haartsen JE, Heineman MJ, Elings M et al. Resumption of pituitary and ovarian activity post-partum: endocrine and ultrasonic observations in bromocriptine-treated women. Hum Reprod 1992; 7 (6): 746–50.
18. Kumar R, Cohen WR, Epstein FH.Vitamin D and calcium hormones in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1980; 302 (20): 1143–5.
19. Kovacs CS, Kronenberg HM. Maternal-fetal calcium and bone metabolism during pregnancy, puerperium, and lactation. Endocr Rev 1997; 18 (6): 832–72.
20. Sowers M, Corton G, Shapiro B et al. Changes in bone density with lactation. JAMA 1993; 269 (24): 3130–5.
21. Kalkwarf HJ, Specker BL. Bone mineral loss during lactation and recovery after weaning. Obstet Gynecol 1995; 86 (1): 26–32.
22. Kovacs CS. Calcium and bone metabolism in pregnancy and lactation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86 (6): 2344–8.
23. Kalkwarf HJ, Specker BL, Bianchi DC et al. The effect of calcium supplementation on bone density during lactation and after weaning. N Engl J Med 1997; 337 (8): 523–8.
24. Kovacs CS. Vitamin D in pregnancy and lactation: maternal, fetal, and neonatal outcomes from human and animal studies. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 88 (2): 520S–528S.
25. Ofluoglu O, Ofluoglu D. A case report: pregnancy-induced severe osteoporosis with eight vertebral fractures. Rheumatol Int 2008; 29 (2): 197–201. Epub 2008 Jul 17.
26. Stumpf UC, Kurth AA, Windolf J, Fassbender WJ. Pregnancy-associated osteoporosis: an underestimated and underdiagnosed severe disease. A review of two cases in short- and long-term follow-up. Adv Med Sci 2007; 52: 94–7.
27. Hellmeyer L, Kühnert M, Ziller V et al. The use of i.v. bisphosphonate in pregnancy-associated osteoporosis-case study. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2007; 115 (2): 139–42.
28. Pettitt DJ, Forman MR, Hanson RL et al. Breastfeeding and incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Pima Indians. Lancet 1997; 350 (9072): 166–8.
29. Díaz S, Aravena R, Cárdenas H et al. Contraceptive efficacy of lactational amenorrhea in urban Chilean women. Contraception 1991; 43 (4): 335–52.
30. Wasalathanthri S, Tennekoon KH. Lactational amenorrhea/anovulation and some of their determinants: a comparison of well-nourished and undernourished women. Fertil Steril 2001; 76 (2): 317–25.
31. Speroff L, Fritz MA, 2005.
32. Campbell OM, Gray RH. Characteristics and determinants of postpartum ovarian function in women in the United States. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169 (1): 55–60.
33. Visness CM, Kennedy KI, Gross BA et al. Fertility of fully breast-feeding women in the early postpartum period. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 89 (2): 164–7.
34. Korver T et al. 1998, 2005.
35. Bjarnadottir RI et al. 2001.
36. King J. 2007.
37. Reinprayoon D et al. 2000.
________________________________________________
2. Barberia JM, Abu-Fadil S, Kletzky OA, Nakamura RM, Mishell DR. Serum prolactin patterns in early human gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1975; 121 (8): 1107–10.
3. Ehara Y, Siler TM, Yen SS. Effects of large doses of estrogen on prolactin and growth hormone release. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976; 125 (4): 455–8.
4. Haslam SZ, Shyamala G. Progesterone receptors in normal mammary gland: receptor modulations in relation to differentiation. J Cell Biol 1980; 86 (3): 730–7.
5. Murphy LJ, Murphy LC, Stead B et al. Modulation of lactogenic receptors by progestins in cultured human breast cancer cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 62 (2): 280–7.
6. Simon WE, Pahnke VG, Hölzel F. In vitro modulation of prolactin binding to human mammary carcinoma cells by steroid hormones and prolactin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 60 (6): 1243–9.
7. Lee CS, Oka T. Progesterone regulation of a pregnancy-specific transcription repressor to beta-casein gene promoter in mouse mammary gland. Endocrinology 1992; 131 (5): 2257–62.
8. Battin DA, Marrs RP, Fleiss PM, Mishell DR Jr. Effect of suckling on serum prolactin, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and estradiol during prolonged lactation. Obstet Gynecol 1985; 65 (6): 785–8.
9. Stern JM, Konner M, Herman TN, Reichlin S. Nursing behaviour, prolactin and postpartum amenorrhoea during prolonged lactation in American and Kung mothers. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf.) 1986; 25 (3): 247–58.
10. Tay CC, Glasier AF, McNeilly AS. Twenty-four hour patterns of prolactin secretion during lactation and the relationship to suckling and the resumption of fertility in breast-feeding women. Hum Reprod 1996; 11 (5): 950–5.
11. Dawood MY, Khan-Dawood FS, Wahi RS, Fuchs F. Oxytocin release and plasma anterior pituitary and gonadal hormones in women during lactation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 52 (4) :678–83.
12. McNeilly AS, Robinson IC, Houston MJ, Howie PW. Release of oxytocin and prolactin in response to suckling. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1983; 286 (6361): 257–9.
13. Nishimori K, Young LJ, Guo Q et al. Oxytocin is required for nursing but is not essential for parturition or reproductive behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93 (21): 11699–704.
14. McClellan HL, Miller SJ, Hartmann PE. Evolution of lactation: nutrition v. protection with special reference to five mammalian species. Nutr Res Rev 2008; 21 (2): 97–116.
15. Betzold CM, Galactagogues J. Midwifery Womens Health 2004; 49 (2): 151–4.
16. Kremer JA, Rolland R, van der Heijden PF et al. Return of gonadotropic function in postpartum women during bromocriptine treatment. Fertil Steril 1989; 51 (4): 622–7.
17. Haartsen JE, Heineman MJ, Elings M et al. Resumption of pituitary and ovarian activity post-partum: endocrine and ultrasonic observations in bromocriptine-treated women. Hum Reprod 1992; 7 (6): 746–50.
18. Kumar R, Cohen WR, Epstein FH.Vitamin D and calcium hormones in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1980; 302 (20): 1143–5.
19. Kovacs CS, Kronenberg HM. Maternal-fetal calcium and bone metabolism during pregnancy, puerperium, and lactation. Endocr Rev 1997; 18 (6): 832–72.
20. Sowers M, Corton G, Shapiro B et al. Changes in bone density with lactation. JAMA 1993; 269 (24): 3130–5.
21. Kalkwarf HJ, Specker BL. Bone mineral loss during lactation and recovery after weaning. Obstet Gynecol 1995; 86 (1): 26–32.
22. Kovacs CS. Calcium and bone metabolism in pregnancy and lactation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86 (6): 2344–8.
23. Kalkwarf HJ, Specker BL, Bianchi DC et al. The effect of calcium supplementation on bone density during lactation and after weaning. N Engl J Med 1997; 337 (8): 523–8.
24. Kovacs CS. Vitamin D in pregnancy and lactation: maternal, fetal, and neonatal outcomes from human and animal studies. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 88 (2): 520S–528S.
25. Ofluoglu O, Ofluoglu D. A case report: pregnancy-induced severe osteoporosis with eight vertebral fractures. Rheumatol Int 2008; 29 (2): 197–201. Epub 2008 Jul 17.
26. Stumpf UC, Kurth AA, Windolf J, Fassbender WJ. Pregnancy-associated osteoporosis: an underestimated and underdiagnosed severe disease. A review of two cases in short- and long-term follow-up. Adv Med Sci 2007; 52: 94–7.
27. Hellmeyer L, Kühnert M, Ziller V et al. The use of i.v. bisphosphonate in pregnancy-associated osteoporosis-case study. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2007; 115 (2): 139–42.
28. Pettitt DJ, Forman MR, Hanson RL et al. Breastfeeding and incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Pima Indians. Lancet 1997; 350 (9072): 166–8.
29. Díaz S, Aravena R, Cárdenas H et al. Contraceptive efficacy of lactational amenorrhea in urban Chilean women. Contraception 1991; 43 (4): 335–52.
30. Wasalathanthri S, Tennekoon KH. Lactational amenorrhea/anovulation and some of their determinants: a comparison of well-nourished and undernourished women. Fertil Steril 2001; 76 (2): 317–25.
31. Speroff L, Fritz MA, 2005.
32. Campbell OM, Gray RH. Characteristics and determinants of postpartum ovarian function in women in the United States. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169 (1): 55–60.
33. Visness CM, Kennedy KI, Gross BA et al. Fertility of fully breast-feeding women in the early postpartum period. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 89 (2): 164–7.
34. Korver T et al. 1998, 2005.
35. Bjarnadottir RI et al. 2001.
36. King J. 2007.
37. Reinprayoon D et al. 2000.
Авторы
М.А.Тарасова, К.А.Шаповалова
НИИ акушерства и гинекологии имени Д.О.Отта СЗО РАМН, Санкт-Петербург
D.O.Ott Research Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Saint Petersburg
НИИ акушерства и гинекологии имени Д.О.Отта СЗО РАМН, Санкт-Петербург
________________________________________________
D.O.Ott Research Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Saint Petersburg
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