1. Marlies EJ, Hulsher L, Richard P et al. Antibiotic prescribing in hospitals: a social and behavioural scientific approach. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 2010; 1 (4): 237–47.
2. McGlynn EA, Asch SM, Adams J et al. The guality of health care delivered to adults in the United States. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 2635–45.
3. Grol R. Successes and failures in the implementation of evidence based guidelines for clinical practice. Med Care 2001; 39 (2): 46–54.
4. Behar P, Wagner MB, Freitas I et al. Assessing the antimicrobial prescription reguest process in teaching hospital in Brazil: regulation and training. Braz J Infect Dis 2000; 4: 76–85.
5. Goossens H, Ferech M, Vander Stichele R, Elseviers M: ESAC Project Group. Outpatient antibiotic use in Europe and association with resistance: a cross-national database study. Lancet 2005; 365: 579–87.
6. Vander Stichele RH, Elseviers MM, Ferech M et al. Hospital consumption of antibiotics in 15 European countries: results of the ESAC Retrospective Data Collection (1997–2002). Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 58: 159–67.
7. Tacconelli E. Antimicrobial use: risk driver of multidrug resistant microorganisms in healthcare settings. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2009; 22: 352–8.
8. Lopez-Lozano JM, Monnet DL, Yague A et al. Modelling and forecasting antimicrobial resistance and its dynamic relationship to antimicrobial use: a time series analysis. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2000; 14: 21–31.
9. Turck D, Bernet JP, Marx J et al. Incidence and risk factors of oral antibiotic-associated diarrhea in an outpatient pediatric population. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2003; 37: 22–6.
10. Elstner CL, Lindsay AN, Book LS, Matsen JM. Lack of relationship of Clostridium difficile to antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children. Pediatr Inf Dis 1983; 2: 364–6.
11. Surawicz CM. Probiotics, antibiotic-associated diarrhea and Clostridium difficile diarrhea in humans. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2003; 17: 775–83.
12. Diplock AT, Aggett PJ, Ashwell M et al. Scientific concepts of functional foods in Europe: consensus document. Br J Nutr 1999; 81 (1): 1–27.
13. D’Souza AL, Rajkumar C, Cooke J, Bulpitt CJ. Probiotics in prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhoea: meta-analysis Br Med J 2002; 324: 1361–4.
14. Cremonini F, Di Caro S, Nista EC et al. Meta-analysis: the effect of probiotic administration on antibiotic associated diarrhea. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2002; 16: 1461–7.
15. Szajewska H, Mrukowicz J. Meta-analysis: non-pathogenic yeast Saccharomyces boulardii in the prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhea.Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005; 22: 365–72.
16. Hawrelak JA, Whitten DL, Myers SP. Is Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG effective in preventing the onset of antibiotic associated diarrhoea: a systematic review. Digestion 2005; 72: 51–6.
17. Hogenauer C, Hammer H, Krejs G. Mechanisms and management of antibiotic associated diarrhea. Clin Inf Dis 1998; 27: 702–10.
18. Chassany O, Michaux A, Bergmann JF. Drug-induced diarrhea. Drug Saf 2000; 22: 53–72.
19. Barlett JG. Antibiotic associated diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis 1992; 15: 573–81.
20. Bouhnik Y, Rambaut JC, Buts JP et al. Microflora and diarrhea: antibiotic associated diarrhea. Gut Microflora 2006; 181–97.
21. Barbut F, Meynard JL, Guiguet M et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in HIV infected patients: epidemiology and risk factors. J Acguir Immune Defic Syndr 1997; 16: 176–81.
22. McFarland LV, Surawicz CM, Stamm WE. Risk factors for Clostri­dium difficile carriage and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in cohort of hospitalized patients. J Infect Dis 1990; 162: 678–84.
23. Gilbert DN. Aspects of the safety profile of oral antimicrobial agents. Infect Dis Clin Pract 1995; 4 (2): 103–12.
24. McFarland LV. Facteurs de risque de la diarrhea associee aux antibiotiques. Une revue de la litterature. Ann Med Interne 1998; 149: 261–6.
25. Sparks SG, Carman RJ, Sarker MR, McClane BA. Genotyping of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens fecal isolates associated with antibiotic associated diarrhea and food poisoning in North America. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39: 883–8.
26. Forbes D, Ee L, Camer-Pesci P, Ward PB. Faecal candida and diarrhoea. Arch Dis Clhild 2001; 84: 328–31.
27. Leonard J, Marshall JK, Moayyedi P. Systematic review of the risk of enteric infection in patients taking acid suppression. Am J Gastroenterol 2007; 102: 2047–56.
28. Dial S, Delaney JAC, Schneider V et al. Proton pump inhibitor use and risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease defined by prescription for oral vancomycin therapy. CMAJ 2006; 175: 745–8.
29. Dial S, Delaney JAC, Barkun AN et al. Use of gastric acid-suppressive agents and the risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease. JAMA 2005; 294: 2989–95.
30. Gulmez SE, Holm A, Frederiksen H et al. Use of proton pump inhibitor use and risk of community-acquired pneumonia: a population-based case-control study. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167: 950–5.
31. Wilcox MH, Mooney L, Bendall R et al. A case-control study of community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 62: 388–96.
32. Nerandzic MM, Pultz MJ, Donskey CJ. Examination of potential mechanisms to explain the association between proton pump inhibitors and Clostridium difficile infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53: 4133–7.
33. Sakurai Y, Tsuchiya H, Ikegami F et al. Acute right-sided hemorrhagic colitis associated with oral administration of ampicillin. Dig Dis Sci 1979; 24: 910–5.
34. Benoit R, Danquechin Dorval E, Loulergue J et al. Diarrhee post-antibiotique: role de Klebsiella oxytoca. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1992; 16: 840–4.
35. Minami J, Katayama S, Matsushita O et al. Enteroxic activity of Klebsiella oxytoca cytotoxin in rabbit intestinal loops. Infect Immun 1994; 62: 172–7.
36. Larson HE, Barclay FE, Honour P et al. Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile in infants. J Infect Dis 1982; 146: 727–33.
37. Rambaud JC, LaMont JT, Buts JP. The clinical significance of Clostridium difficile infections in infants and children. Gasroenterol Clin Biol 1996; p. 29–36.
38. Taori SK, Hall V, Poxton I. The influence of antibiotics on the changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile. J Med Microbiol 2009; published online Nov 26, DOI:10.1099/jmm.0.14829-0.
39. Woodford N, Livermore DM. Infection caused by Gram-positive bacteria: a review of the global challenge. J Infect 2009; 59 (1): 4–16.
40. Monaghan T, Boswell T, Mahida YR. Recent advances in Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Gut 2008; 57: 850–60.
41. Rupnik M, Wilcox MH, Gerding DN. Clostridium difficile infection: new developments in epidemiology and pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol 2009; 7: 526–36.
42. LaMont JT. Recent advances in the structures and function of Clostridium difficile toxins. Springer-Verlag, 1996; p. 73–82.
43. Kelly CP, LaMont JT. Clostridium difficile: more difficult than even. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 1932–40.
44. Marteau P, Rambaud JC. Colites pseudomembraneuses et autres manifestations de l'infection a Clostridium difficile. Paris: Flamma­rion 2000; p. 687–93.
45. Bulusu M, Narayan S, Shetler K, Triadafilopoulos G. Leukocytosis as a harbinger and surrogate marker of Clostridium difficile infection in hospitalized patients with diarrhea. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 3137–41.
46. Price AB. Pseudomembranous colitis. London, 2005; p. 15–172.
47. Kelly CP, Pothoulakis C, LaMont JT. Clostridium difficile colitis. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 257–62.
48. Gerding DN. Disease associated with Clostridium difficile infection. Ann Intern Med 1989; 110: 255–7.
49. Fekety R, Shah AB. Diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis. JAMA 1993; 269: 71–5.
50. Swidsinski A, Loening-Baucke V, Verstraelen H et al. Biostructure of fecal microbiota in healthy subjects and patients with chronic idiopathic diarrhea. Gastroenterology 2008; 135: 568–79.
51. Gedek S. Adherence of Escherichia coli O157 and the Salmonella typhimurum mutant DT101 to a surface of Saccharomyces boulardii. Mycoses 1999; 42: 261–4.
52. Qamar A, Aboudola S, Warny M et al. Saccharomyces boulardii stimulates intestinal immunoglobulin A immune response to Clostridium difficile toxin A in mice. Infect Immun 2001; 69: 2762–5.
53. McFarland LV, Surawicz CM, Elmer GE. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of Saccharomyces boulardii in combination with standard antibiotics for Clostridium difficile disease. J Am Med Assoc 1994; 271: 1913–8.
54. Czerucka D, Rampal P. Experimental effects of Saccharomyces boulardii on diarrheal pathogens. Microbes infect 2002; 4: 733–9.
55. Cremonini F, Di Caro S, Nista EC et al. Meta-analysis: the effect of probiotic administration on antibiotic-associated diarrhoea. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2002; 16 (8): 1461–7.
56. Rambaud JC, Buts JP, Corthier G, Flourie B. Gut microflora. Digestive physiology and pathology. John Libbey Eurotext, Paris, 2006.
57. Hamer HM, Jonkers D, Venema K et al. Review article: the role of butyrate on colonic function. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008; 27: 104–19.
58. Girard P, Pansart Y, Gillardin JM. Inducible nitric oxide synthase involvement in the mechanism of action of Saccharomyces boulardii in castor oil-induced diarrhea in rats. Nitric Oxide 2005; 13: 163–9.
59. Sougioultzis S, Simeonidis S, Bhaskar KR et al. Saccharomyces boulardii produces a soluble anti-inflammatory factor that inhibits NF-kB-mediated IL-8 gene expression. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 343 (1): 69–76.
60. Kotowska M, Albrecht P, Szajewska H. Saccharomyces boulardii in the prevention of antibiotic-associeted diarrhoea in children: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005; 21: 583–90.

Н.И.Урсова

ГУ Московский областной научно-исследовательский клинический институт им. М.Ф.Владимирского