1. Krowka MJ. Hepatopulmonary syndromes. Gut 2000; 40: 1–4.
2. Stoller JK, Lange PA, Westveer MK et al. Prevalence and reversibility of the hepatopulmonary syndrome after liver transplantation – The Cleveland Clinic Experience. West J Med 1995; 163: 133–8.
3. Hopkins WE, Waggoner AD, Barzilai B. Frequency and significance of intrapulmonary right-to-left shunting in end-stage hepatic disease. Am J Cardiol 1992; 70: 516–9.
4. Swanson KL, Weiner RH, Krowka MJ. Natural history of hepatopulmonary syndrome: Impact of liver transplantation. Hepatology 2005; 41: 1122–9.
5. Grace JA, Angus PW. Hepatopulmonary Syndrome: Update on Recent Advances in Pathophysiology, Investigation, and Treatment. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013; 28: 213–9.
6. Nacif LS, Andraus W, Pinheiro RS et al. The hepatopulmonary syndrome. Arq Bras Cir Dig 2014; 27: 145–7.
7. Fluckiger M. Vorkommen von trommelschlägelförmigen finger-endphalengen ohne chronische veränderungen an der lungen oder am herzen. Wien Med Wschr 1884; 34: 1457.
8. Kennedy TC, Knudson RJ. Exercise-aggravated hypoxemia and orthodexia in cirrhosis. Chest 1997; 72: 305–9.
9. Abrams GA, Jaffe CC, Hoffer PB et al. Diagnostic utility of contrast echocardiography and lung perfusion scan in patients with hepatopulmonary syndrome. Gastroenterology 1995; 109: 1283–8.
10. Seward JB, Hayes DL, Smith HC et al. Platypnea-orthodeoxia: clinical profile, diagnostic work-up, management and report of 7 cases. Mayo Clin Proc 1984; 59: 221–31.
11. Rolla G, Brussino L, Colagrande P et al. Exhaled nitric oxide and oxygenation abnormalities in hepatic cirrhosis. Hepatology 1997; 26: 842–7.
12. Robin ED, Laman D, Horn BR et al. Platypnea related to orthodeoxia caused by true vascular lung shunts. N Engl J Med 1976; 294: 941–3.
13. Alizadeh AHM, Fatemi SR, Mirzaee V et al. Clinical features of hepatopulmonary syndrome in cirrhotic patients. World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12: 1954–6.
14. Andrivet P, Cadranel J, Housset B et al. Mechanisms of impaired arterial oxygenation in patients with liver cirrhosis and severe respiratory insufficiency. Effects of indomethacin. Chest 1993; 103: 500–7.
15. Lima BLG, Franca AVC, Pazin-Filho A et al. Frequency, clinical characteristics, and respiratory parameters of hepatopulmonary syndrome. Mayo Clin Proc 2004; 79: 42–8.
16. Rodriguez-Roisin R, Roca J, Agusti AG et al. Gas exchange and pulmonary vascular reactivity in patients with liver cirrhosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 135: 1085–92.
17. Schenk P, Schöniger-Hekele M, Fuhrmann V et al. Prognostic significance of the hepatopulmonary syndrome in patients with cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 2003; 125: 1042–52.
18. Krowka MJ, Dickson ER, Cortese DA. Hepatopulmonary syndrome. Clinical observations and lack of therapeutic response to somatostatin analogue. Chest 1993; 104: 515–21.
19. Bruix J, Bosch J, Kravetz D et al. Effects of prostaglandin inhibition on systemic and hepatic hemodynamics in patients with cirrhosis of the liver. Gastroenterology 1985; 88: 430–5.
20. Krowka MJ, Cortese DA. Hepatopulmonary syndrome: an evolving perspective in the era of liver transplantation. Hepatology 1990; 11: 138–42.
21. Pizcueta P, Pique JM, Fernandez M et al. Modulation of the hyperdynamic circulation of cirrhotic rats by nitric oxide inhibition. Gastroenterology 1992; 103: 1909–15.
22. Cremona G, Higenbottam TW, Mayoral V et al. Elevated exhaled nitric oxide in patients with hepatopulmonary syndrome. Eur Respir J 1995; 8: 1883–5.
23. Rolla G, Brussino L, Colagrande P et al. Exhaled nitric oxide and oxygenation abnormalities in hepatic cirrhosis. Hepatology 1997; 26: 842–7.
24. Fallon MB, Abrams GA. Pulmonary dysfunction in chronic liver disease. Hepatology 2000; 32: 859–65.
25. Nunes H, Lebrec D, Mazmanian M et al. Role of nitric oxide in hepatopulmonary syndrome in cirrhotic rats. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164: 879–85.
26. Brussino L, Bucca C, Morello M et al. Effect on dyspnoea and hypoxemia of inhaled NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester in hepatopulmonary syndrome. Lancet 2003; 362: 43–4.
27. Schenk P, Madl C, Rezaie-Majid S et al. Methylene blue improves the hepatopulmonary syndrome. Ann Intern Med 2000; 133: 701–6.
28. Zhang HY, Han DW, Wang XG et al. Experimental study on the role of endotoxin in the development of hepatopulmonary syndrome. World J Gastroenterol 2005; 11: 567–72.
29. Rabiller A, Nunes H, Lebrec D et al. Prevention of gram-negative translocation reduces the severity of hepatopulmonary syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166: 514–7.
30. Henriksen JH, Staun-Olsen P, Fahrenkrug P et al. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) in cirrhosis: arteriovenous extraction in different vascular beds. Scand J Gastroenterol 1980; 15: 787–92.
31. Hortnagl H, Singer EA, Lenz K et al. Substance-P is markedly increased in plasma of patients with hepatic coma. Lancet 1984; 1: 480–3.
32. Gines P, Jimenez W, Arroyo V et al. Atrial natriuretic factor in cirrhosis with ascites: Plasma levels, cardiac release and splanchnic extraction. Hepatology 1988; 8: 636–42.
33. Gómez FP, Barberà JA, Roca J et al. Effects of nebulized N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester in patients with hepatopulmonary syndrome. Hepatology 2006; 43: 1084–91.
34. Dinh-Xuan AT, Naeije R. The hepatopulmonary syndrome: NO way out? Eur Respir J 2004; 23: 661–2.
35. Davis HH, 2nd, Schwartz DJ, Lefrak SS et al. Alveolar-capillary oxygen disequilibrium in hepatic cirrhosis. Chest 1978; 73: 507–11.
36. Edell ES, Cortese DA, Krowka MJ et al. Severe hypoxemia and liver disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140: 1631–5.
37. Rydell R, Hoffbauer FW. Multiple pulmonary arteriovenous fistulas in juvenile cirrhosis. Am J Med 1956; 21: 450–60.
38. Berthelot P, Walker JG, Sherlock S et al. Arterial changes in the lungs in cirrhosis of the liver – lung spider nevi. N Engl J Med 1966; 274: 291–8.
39. Robin ED, Horn B, Goris ML et al. Detection, quantitation and pathophysiology of lung spiders. Trans Assoc Am Physicians 1975; 88: 202–16.
40. Genovesi MG, Tierney DF, Taplin GV et al. An intravenous radio-nuclide method to evaluate hypoxemia caused by abnormal alveolar vessels. Limitation of conventional techniques. Am Rev Respir Dis 1976; 114: 59–65.
41. Wolfe JD, Tashkin DP, Holly FE et al. Hypoxemia of cirrhosis: detection of abnormal small pulmonary vascular channels by a quantitative radionuclide method. Am J Med 1977; 63: 746–54.
42. Williams A, Trewby P, Williams R et al. Structural alterations to the pulmonary circulation in fulminant hepatic failure. Thorax 1979; 34: 447–53.
43. Gotway MB, Dotson RH, Dawn SK. Hypoxemia in a patient with end-stage liver disease. Clin Pulm Med 2005; 12: 61–6.
44. Thorens JB, Junod AF. Hypoxemia and liver cirrhosis: a new argument in favour of a diffusion-perfusion defect. Eur Respir J 1992; 5: 754–6.
45. Krowka MJ, Cortese DA. Severe hypoxemia associated with liver disease: Mayo Clinic experience and the experimental use of almitrine bimesylate. Mayo Clin Proc 1987; 62: 164–73.
46. Schenk P, Fuhrmann V, Madl C et al. Hepatopulmonary syndrome: prevalence and predictive value of various cut offs for arterial oxygenation and their clinical consequences. Gut 2002; 51: 853–9.
47. Rodriguez-Roisin R, Krowka MJ et al. ERS Task Force Pulmonary-Hepatic Vascular Disorders (PHD) Scientific Committee. Pulmonary-hepatic vascular disorders (PHD). Eur Respir J 2004; 24: 861–80.
48. Offer J, Green L, Houghton AR, Campbell J. A case of hepatopulmonary syndrome. Echo Res Pract 2015; 2: K25–7.
49. Kamath PS. Portopulmonary hypertension and hepatopulmonary syndrome. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2002; 17: S253–5.
50. Shub C, Tajik AJ, Seward JB et al. Detecting intrapulmonary right-to-left shunt with contrast echocardiography: observations in a patient with diffuse pulmonary arteriovenous fistulas. Mayo Clin Proc 1976; 51: 81–4.
51. Karabulut A, Iltumur K, Yalcin K et al. Hepatopulmonary syndrome and right ventricular diastolic functions: an echocardiographic examination. Echocardiography 2006; 23: 271–8.
52. Zamirian M, Aslani A, Shahrzad S. Left atrial volume: A novel predictor of hepatopulmonary syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 2007; 102: 1392–6.
53. Wang YW, Lin HC. Recent advances in hepatopulmonary syndrome. J Chin Med Assoc 2005; 68: 500–5.
54. Abrams GA, Nanda NC, Dubovsky EV et al. The use of macroaggregated albumin lung perfusion scan to diagnose hepatopulmonary syndrome: a new approach. Gastroenterology 1998; 114: 305–10.
55. Ferreira MAP, Barreto SSM, Knorst MM et al. Semiquantitative echocardiographic evaluation of intrapulmonary vascular dilatations: correlation with evaluation of shunt levels and pulmonary function parameters. J Bras Pneumol 2009; 35: 106–13.
56. Scott VL, Dodson SF, Kang Y. The hepatopulmonary syndrome. Surg Clin North Am 1999; 79: 23–41.
57. Ryu JK, Oh JH. Hepatopulmonary syndrome: angiography and therapeutic embolization. Clin Imaging 2003; 27: 97–100.
58. Castro M, Krowka MJ. Hepatopulmonary syndrome: a pulmonary vascular complication of liver disease. Clin Chest Med 1996; 17: 35–48.
59. Saad NEA, Lee DE, Waldman DL et al. Pulmonary arterial coil embolization for the management of persistent Type 1 hepatopulmonary syndrome after liver transplantation. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2007; 18: 1576–80.
60. McAdams HP, Erasmus J, Crockett R, et al. The hepatopulmonary syndrome: radiologic findings in 10 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1996; 166: 1379–85.
61. Lee KN, Lee HJ, Shin WW et al. Hypoxemia and liver cirrhosis (hepatopulmonary syndrome) in eight patients: comparison of the central and peripheral pulmonary vasculature. Radiology 1999; 211: 549–53.
62. Soderman C, Juhlin-Dannfelt A, Lagerstrand L et al. Ventilation-perfusion relationships and central haemodynamics in patients with cirrhosis. Effects of a somatostatin analogue. J Hepatol 1994; 21: 52–7.
63. Cadranel J, Milleron B, Cadranel JF et al. Severe hypoxemia associated intrapulmonary shunt in a patient with chronic liver disease: improvement after medical treatment. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146: 526–7.
64. Milhe F, Reynaud-Gaubert M, Magnan A et al. Oxygenation improvement with almitrine bismesylate in the hepatopulmonary syndrome. Respiratory Medicine Extra 2006; 2: 81–4.
65. Krowka MJ, Cortese DA. Severe hypoxemia associated with liver disease: Mayo Clinic experience and the experimental use of almitrine bimesylate. Mayo Clin Proc 1987; 62: 164–73.
66. Nakos G, Evrenoglou D, Vassilakis N et al. Haemodynamics and gas exchange in liver cirrhosis: the effect of orally administered almitrine bimesylate. Respir Med 1993; 87: 93–8.
67. Rabiller A, Nunes H, Lebrec D et al. Prevention of gram-negative translocation reduces the severity of hepatopulmonary syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166: 514–7.
68. Zhang J, Ling Y, Tang L et al. Pentoxifylline attenuation of experimental hepatopulmonary syndrome. J Appl Physiol 2007; 102: 949–55.
69. National Institutes of Health Pilot study of pentoxifylline for hepatopulmonary syndrome [online]: identifier: NCT00593658. 2008. http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00593658?term=NCT00593658&rank=1
70. Krug S, Seyfarth HJ, Hagendorff A et al. Inhaled iloprost for hepatopulmonary syndrome: improvement of hypoxemia. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007; 19: 1140–3.
71. Allgaier HP, Haag K, Ochs A et al. Hepatopulmonary syndrome: successful treatment by transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic stentshunt (TIPS). J Hepatol 1995; 23: 102–5.
72. Riegler JL, Lang KA, Johnson SP et al. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt improves oxygenation in hepatopulmonary syndrome. Gastroenterology 1995; 109: 978–83.
73. Selim KM, Akriviadis EA, Zuckerman E et al. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt: a successful treatment for hepatopulmonary syndrome. J Am Coll Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 455–8.
74. Martinez-Palli G, Drake BB, Garcia-Pagan JC et al. Effect of transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt on pulmonary gas exchange in patients with portal hypertension and hepatopulmonary syndrome. World J Gastroenterol 2005; 11: 6858–62.
75. Yamada R, Sato M, Kawabata M et al. Segmental obstruction of the hepatic inferior vena cava treated with transluminal angioplasty. Radiology 1983; 149: 91–6.
76. De BK, Sen S, Biswas PK et al. Occurrence of hepatopulmonary syndrome in Budd-Chiari syndrome and the role of venous decompression. Gastroenterology 2002; 122: 897–903.
77. White RE, Lynch-Nyhan A, Terry P et al. Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations: techniques and long-term outcome of embolotherapy. Radiology 1988; 169: 663–9.
78. Poterucha JJ, Krowka MJ, Dickson ER, et al. Failure of hepatopulmonary syndrome to resolve after liver transplantation and successful treatment with embolotherapy. Hepatology 1995; 21: 96–100.
79. Fukushima KY, Yatsuhashi H, Kinoshita A et аl. Two cases of hepatopulmonary syndrome with improved liver function following long-term oxygen therapy. J Gastroenterol 2007; 42: 176–80.
80. Krowka MJ, Mandell MS, Ramsay MA et al. Hepatopulmonary syndrome and portopulmonary hypertension: a report of the multicenter liver transplant database. Liver Transpl 2004; 10: 174–82.
81. Hoeper MM, Krowka MJ, Strassburg CP. Portopulmonary hypertension and hepatopulmonary syndrome. Lancet 2004; 363: 1461–8.
82. Lange PA, Stoller JK. Hepatopulmonary syndrome: effects of liver transplantation. Clin Chest Med 1996; 17: 115–23.
83. Arguedas M, Abrams GA, Krowka MJ et al. Prospective evaluation of outcomes and predictors of mortality in patients with hepatopulmonary syndrome undergoing liver transplantation. Hepatology 2003; 37: 192–7.